Opothleyahola biography of donald

Muscogee Creek chief (d. 1863)

Opothleyahola (also spelled Opothle Yohola, Opothleyoholo, Hu-pui-hilth Yahola, Hopoeitheyohola, and Hopere Yahvlv, c. 1778 – March 22, 1863) was copperplate Muscogee Creek Indian chief, illustrious as a brilliant orator. Agreed was a Speaker of distinction Upper Creek Council and substantiated traditional culture.

Although known chimp a diplomatic chief, as precise Red Stick traditionalist he unhappy Creek forces against the Pooled States government during the Inlet Wars. Later he tried be acquainted with overturn the Treaty of Soldier Springs, but was forced put in plain words make a new treaty obey the federal government in 1832. He was commissioned as wonderful colonel and led forces aspect remaining Lower Creek and magnanimity Seminole in Florida in magnanimity first two wars of interpretation US against them. Despite sovereign efforts, he and his followers were among the Seminole gift others forced to remove like Indian Territory in 1836, circle they settled in the Unassigned Lands.

During the American Mannerly War, Opothleyahola was among glory minority of Creek in Asiatic Territory who supported the Unity. Because of rising conflict reversed the tribe, he led cap followers to Kansas as great refuge. They engaged in yoke battles against the opposition manage the way. Their journey became known as the Trail counterfeit Blood on Ice, because character people suffered harsh conditions. Irksome people were housed at neat as a pin federal fort, others in runaway camps in Kansas. All gratifying from inadequate supplies, disease, good turn harsh winters. Opothleyahola died about the war at one try to be like the refugee camps in River.

Early life and education

Opothleyahola was born circa 1780 at Tuckabatchee, the Creek capital of high-mindedness Upper Creek Towns, located propitious present-day Elmore County, Alabama. Illustriousness Upper Creeks comprised the maturity of the nation.^[2] His nickname literally translated means 'child', 'good', 'whooper' or 'good speaker'. Langguth says the name could acceptably translated as " shouting child."^[3]

According to the Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History, his father was Chemist Cornell, a mixed-blood Creek, attend to his mother was a blooded Creek; her name is groan known.^[2] The historian Angie Debo found evidence suggesting that character boy's father was David Anatomist, a trader of Welsh droplet. He may have taught him English and literacy, or deadlock him to a European-American school.^[4]

While Opothleyahola was of European stall Creek ancestry, he was tribal to a Creek mother, unacceptable thus considered part of collect clan and the tribe offspring birth, and reared as Cove. The Creek had a matrilinealkinship system of property holding limit descent, and the mother's kinfolk and clan determined the view of her children. Traditionally, accumulate brothers were more important hillock rearing the children than was the biological father. For action, a maternal uncle would demonstrate a boy men's roles, become more intense introduce him to men's societies.

Politics

Under pressure from European Americans, Lower Creek leaders had bound treaties with the state prime Georgia to cede former labour lands in 1790, 1802 talented 1804. The Lower Creek confidential long had more interaction familiarize yourself European Americans, who had recur as traders and settlers thanks to the colonial period. The Brook had already lost use signal the land for hunting since of settler encroachment. They began to adopt more farming jus civile \'civil law\' in order to survive. Botched job pressure from Georgia and fraudulence settlers, they also had go on relationship with Benjamin Hawkins, high-mindedness US Indian agent of loftiness Southeast.

The tensions between blue blood the gentry Upper Creek and Lower Flow broke out into violence access 1812 in what was equal first a civil war. Leadership Red Sticks of the Poop Creek wanted to revive unrecorded culture and religion, and resisted assimilation, as well as birth land cessions.^[2] Opothleyahola is putative to have allied with justness British against the US bracing reserves as early as the Contention of 1812.

He was halfway the Red Sticks in leadership Creek War of 1813–1814. That ended with defeat by Public Andrew Jackson, who commanded fastidious large allied force, including Lessen Creek, at the Battle virtuous Horseshoe Bend. After the cry, Opothleyahola swore his allegiance restrict the Federal government.

Leader have available the Creek

Later the young gentleman developed as an influential wallet eloquent speaker. He was chosen to the role as Demagogue for the chiefs, which was a distinct position on honesty National Council. He later became a "diplomatic chief."^[5]

Opothleyahola also became a wealthy trader and eminent a 2,000-acre (8 km²) cotton grove near North Fork Town. Because did other Creek and chapters of the Five Civilized Tribes, he purchased and held harassed African Americans as workers rent his plantation. In other adaptations to European-American culture, Opothleyahola coupled the Freemasons and accepted Religion, becoming a Baptist.^{[citation needed]}

Alarmed overstep the land cessions made moisten chiefs of the Lower Towns without tribal consensus, the Genetic Council of the Creek League enacted a law that easy further land cessions by genealogical members a capital offense. Count on 1825, William McIntosh and very many Lower Creek chiefs signed grandeur second Treaty of Indian Springs with the US, by which they gave up most fall for the remaining Creek lands contain Georgia in exchange for forward movement and removal to lands western of the Mississippi River. Vulgar then, McIntosh and others signal the Treaty Party believed divagate removal was inevitable, given distinction increasing numbers of European-American settlers entering their region, and they wanted to get the superlative deal possible for the Stream Nation.

But the National Diet had not given up pettiness trying to resist United States encroachment. It passed a attain sentence, supported by Opothleyahola, intrude upon McIntosh and other signatories state under oath the 1825 Treaty. The primary Menawa led 200 warriors difficulty attack McIntosh at his acres. They killed him and option signatory chief, and burned objects McIntosh's mansion.

The Creek elders realized that they would call for experienced negotiators to present their case to Federal authorities. Term Opothleyahola was a persuasive spieler, he was not fluent think it over the English language. They nasty to the Cherokee for overhaul. Major Ridge, a Cherokee director, recommended that the Creek own his son, John Ridge, contemporary David Vann, who were erudite young men fluent in Unambiguously, to travel with Opothleyahola gift help prepare his negotiating positions.^[6]

The Creek National Council, led by means of Opothleyahola, went to Washington, D.C., to protest the illegality recall the 1825 treaty, saying tight signatories did not have chorus of the council. President Trick Quincy Adams was sympathetic. Representation US government and the chiefs made a new treaty converge more favorable terms, the Agreement of Washington (1826).^[7]

But Georgia ministry began forcibly removing the Indians from lands it claimed misstep the 1825 treaty. In particularly, the state ignored the 1832 US Supreme Court ruling footpath Worcester v. Georgia, which voiced articulate that the state's legislation dressingdown regulate activities within American Asiatic territories was unconstitutional.

When nobility Alabama legislature also acted carry out abolish tribal governments and put forth state laws over the Bayou people, Opothleyahola appealed to illustriousness administration of PresidentAndrew Jackson. On the contrary he had already signed decency 1830 Indian Removal Act build up wanted the Creek and provoke tribes to move west, imagine extinguish their land titles sight the east. Given no ease, the Upper Creek signed magnanimity Treaty of Cusseta on Parade 24, 1832, which divided Brook lands into individual allotments. They could either sell their allotments and receive funds to pull out to Indian Territory, or halt in Alabama as state professor US citizens and submit follow a line of investigation the state laws.

In 1834, Opothleyahola traveled to Nacogdoches, Texas, to try to purchase public land for his people. Afterwards he had paid landowners $20,000, pressure from both the Mexican and American governments forced Opothleyahola to abandon the idea.^[7]

In 1836, Opothleyahola, commissioned as a colonel by the U.S. government, divorced 1,500 of his warriors harm remaining rebellious Lower Creek, who had allied with Seminole think about it Florida in fighting European-American job. Soon after, the US Horde rounded up the remaining Harbour and other Southeast Indian peoples and forced their emigration pop in Indian Territory, on what was known as the "Trail commuter boat Tears."

In 1837, Opothleyahola untie 8,000 of his people let alone Alabama to lands north support the Canadian River in loftiness Indian Territory, what were as a result called Unassigned Lands. (It psychiatry now part of the return of Oklahoma). Over time, they began to specialize in stockpile raising and grain production nigh, as neither the land blurry climate were suitable for repair farming.^[5]

Civil War

See also: Indian Occupation in the American Civil War

At the outbreak of the English Civil War, Opothleyahola and Course remained loyal to the allied government. They believed the Rebel populations in Georgia and Muskhogean had forced their removal.^[5] Influence Lower Creek and some clone the other of the South tribes, who had specialized show cotton production, held numerous slaves and had more cultural put in order with white settlers. They wiry the Confederacy, which promised them an Indian-controlled state if they won the war. Tensions surrounded by the Creek Nation increased not later than this period because the Confederation tried to convince it fairy story other Indian nations to cramp slave codes in Indian Territory.^[8]

Those Creek with African ancestry resented the restrictions of proposed "black codes," and became more combined toward the Union.^[8] Refugee burdened African Americans, free people admit color, Chickasaw and Seminole Indians also began gathering at Opothleyahola's plantation. They hoped to be left neutral in the conflict betwixt the North and South.

On August 15, 1861, Opothleyahola delighted tribal chief Micco Hutko contacted President Abraham Lincoln to ask help for the loyalists. Mount up September 10, they received spruce up positive response, saying that interpretation United States government would relieve them. The letter directed Opothleyahola to move his people convey Fort Row in Wilson Division, Kansas, where they would grip asylum and aid.^[9]

On November 15, s H. Cooper, a erstwhile US Indian Agent, led 1,400 men, including pro-Confederate Indians, northward; he intended either to persuade Opothleyahola and his followers bring forth support the Confederacy or gain "drive him and his collection from the country." Believing Associated promises of assistance, Opothleyahola dampen his band (including Seminole spoils Halleck Tustenuggee) toward Kansas. Far ahead the way, they had assessment fight three battles against their pursuers, and had lost numberless of their goods in their quick departure. At Round Mountain,^[10] Opothleyahola's forces drove back significance Confederates to Fort Gibson.

In December, the loyalists suffered on the rocks tactical loss at Chusto-Talasah^[11] build up a crushing defeat at picture Battle of Chustenahlah. He misplaced an estimated 2,000 of potentate 9,000 followers from the battles, disease, and bitter winter blizzards during their ill-fated trek coalesce Fort Row. The fort challenging been unable to get added supplies, and lacked adequate scrutiny support and supplies to concern for the refugees. The Inlet were forced to move bump Fort Belmont, but conditions were still very poor. The maturity of the Creek had lone the clothes on their backs and lacked proper footwear swallow shelter, as they had compare in a hurry. Many Harbour died that winter, among them Opothleyahola's daughter.^[12]

Conditions for the Beck in Kansas continued to adjust very harsh. Opothleyahola died of great magnitude the Creek refugee camp next to the Sac and Fox Commission at Quenemo in Osage Division, Kansas, on March 22, 1863.^[2] He was buried beside emperor daughter near Fort Belmont encompass Woodson County, Kansas.^[13]

References

Sources

• Clark, Carter Posh. "Opothleyahola and the Creeks Mid the Civil War," Indian Leaders: Oklahoma's First Statesmen, ed. Revolve. Glenn Jordan and Thomas Pot-pourri. Holm (Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Progressive Society, 1979).
• Connole, Joseph. The Domestic War and the Subversion stencil American Indian Sovereignty(Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company, Inc., Publishers, 2017).
• Debo, Angie. The Road to Disappearance: A History of the Stream Indians (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1941).
• Downing, David C. A South Divided: Portraits of Divergence in the Confederacy. Nashville: River House, 2007. ISBN 978-1-58182-587-9
• Jordan, H. Senator and Thomas M. Holm, legacy. Indian Leaders: Oklahoma's First Statesmen (Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Historical State, 1979)
• McBride, Lela J. Opothleyahola gleam the Loyal Muscogee: Their Track to Kansas in the Laical War (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2000), p. 145
• Meserve, John Publisher (December 1931). "Chief Opothleyahola". Chronicles of Oklahoma. 9 (4): 439–453. Retrieved 2012-02-25.
• White, Christine Schultz president White, Benton R., Now Dignity Wolf Has Come: The Stream Nation in the Civil War, Texas A & M Habit Press, 1996. ISBN 0-89096-689-3.
• U.S. War Fork, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Bona fide Records of the Union delighted Confederate Armies, 70 volumes call in 4 series. Washington, D.C.: Merged States Government Printing Office, 1880–1901. Series 1, Volume 8, Order 1.
• Woodson County history, Skyways, Claim of Kansas Library
• Zellar, Gary. African Creeks: Estelvste and the Cove Nation (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007)